Hierotheos of Athens and Dionysius the Areopagite
These two saints are the foremost figures among the distinguished group of Church Fathers whom we commemorate under the title of the “Twelve Doctors of the Church.” Their feast is celebrated toward the end of October, on the Saturday preceding the seventh Sunday after the Feast of the Holy Cross, which is the Feast of the Discovery of the Holy Cross.
These two figures are inseparably connected because the first, Hierotheos, is presented as the teacher of the second, Dionysius, in the writings attributed to Dionysius, which we shall discuss below.
Dionysius serves as a link between the saints of the New Testament and the saints of subsequent Church history, since he is mentioned in the Acts of the Apostles as one of the first converts resulting from the Apostle Paul's preaching in Athens.
When the Apostle Paul concluded his address before the Areopagus, the supreme council of Athens, the author of the Acts of the Apostles concludes the account with these words:
“So Paul departed from among them. But certain men joined him and believed, among whom was Dionysius the Areopagite” (Acts 17:32–34).
The word Areopagus comes from the Greek and means “Hill of Ares.”
This name was given to one of the hills of Athens, where, from ancient times, the city's aristocratic council assembled. This council also dealt with religious matters.
The name Areopagus eventually passed from the hill itself to the council that met there, and the council continued to be known by that name even when it assembled elsewhere.
Thus, the designation Areopagite does not mean someone who was born or lived on the hill known by that name. Rather, it signifies membership in the council bearing that name, just as the terms Pharisees and Sadducees refer to members of the respective religious groups known by those names.
Apart from the Acts of the Apostles, the only information we possess about Dionysius comes from Eusebius's Ecclesiastical History, which affirms that Dionysius was the first bishop of Athens and was ordained by the Apostle Paul.
However, his fame and the great authority and distinction he enjoyed as a Doctor of the Church are based upon a collection of writings attributed to him. During the Middle Ages, these works were held in exceptionally high esteem and profoundly influenced the theological thought of both Eastern and Western theologians, not only during that period but also in subsequent centuries.
These writings are:
1. On the Celestial Hierarchy — Concerning the various ranks and orders of angels.
2. On the Ecclesiastical Hierarchy — Concerning the hierarchy of the Church, which is presented as a reflection or earthly counterpart of the heavenly hierarchy.
3. On the Divine Names — Concerning the attributes, qualities, and names ascribed to God.
4. Mystical Theology — Concerning the Christian spiritual life and the attainment of spiritual perfection.
These works attributed to Dionysius were also translated into Armenian, first by the scholar and writer Stephen of Syunik in the eighth century, and later by Stephen of Poland in the seventeenth century.
Although the works mentioned above are of great theological importance, it is now established that they were not written by Dionysius, who lived in the first century. Rather, they were composed by a distinguished intellectual who lived toward the end of the fifth century or the beginning of the sixth century and who presented his writings under the name of Dionysius the Areopagite.
Consequently, once we accept that these writings do not belong to Dionysius of Athens, the disciple of the Apostle Paul, his standing as one of the “Doctors of the Church” can no longer be maintained. He would instead retain his historical distinction as the first bishop of Athens.
His only proper place in our liturgical calendar would then be on the Thursday following the fifth Sunday after the Feast of the Holy Cross, where his memory is indeed celebrated alongside two other great disciples of the Apostle Paul, Timothy and Titus.
Western tradition, however, carries the story of Dionysius as far as Paris, regarding him as one of the first evangelizers of that city and as its first bishop.
According to this tradition, he was arrested and beheaded at a place that is still known today as Montmartre, meaning “Hill of the Martyrs.”
Tradition further relates that after his beheading, his body rose to its feet, picked up its severed head, held it in its hands, and walked to the place now known by his name, Saint-Denis.
A magnificent basilica was subsequently built at that site, where many of the kings and princes of France were buried, including our own unfortunate King Leo VI of Cilician Armenia.
However, the generally accepted view today is that this bishop of Paris was an entirely different person. He lived in the middle of the third century and was indeed martyred in Paris in A.D. 258.
He was confused with Dionysius of the Apostolic Age, most likely because they shared the same name.
As for Hierotheos (also known as Heretheos, from which the affectionate form Heretik is derived), the historical authenticity of his account becomes questionable because he appears only in the writings attributed to Dionysius, where he is presented as Dionysius's teacher and spiritual guide.
Apart from these writings, we find no mention anywhere of a distinguished thinker or saint named Hierotheos of Athens who would have been worthy of standing at the head of the illustrious group known as the “Twelve Doctors of the Church.”
St. Sylvester, Patriarch of Rome
Sylvester occupied the papal throne during the reign of Emperor Constantine, from A.D. 314 to 335. He was the fortunate pontiff who witnessed and welcomed the liberation of the Christian Church from persecution.
Although the Council of Nicaea was convened during his pontificate, he did not personally attend but instead sent two representatives.
It was during Sylvester's tenure that construction began on the churches for which Rome would become renowned throughout the centuries. Among these were St. Peter's Basilica in the Vatican and the Lateran Basilica, which served as the mother church of Rome during his time.
He died peacefully and was buried in Rome.
Sylvester is included in the Armenian Church's liturgical calendar and is commemorated twice each year, in accordance with the tradition concerning St. Gregory the Illuminator's visit to Rome and the establishment of a covenant of friendship between them.
The tradition claiming that Sylvester baptized Emperor Constantine also appears to be historically unfounded, since it is an established historical fact that Constantine was baptized on his deathbed in A.D. 337, by which time Sylvester had already died.
Sylvester was among those who contributed to the organization, development, and enrichment of the Roman Church in its liturgical, administrative, and other aspects.
We commemorate his feast twice each year: first, on the Saturday nearest January 1, together with St. Basil and his companions; and second, on the last Saturday of October, together with the Twelve Doctors of the Church.
St. Athanasius, Patriarch of Alexandria
Athanasius was one of the greatest figures in the history of the Christian Church.
He was born in Alexandria in A.D. 296 and received his theological education at the renowned theological schools of his native city.
He was ordained a deacon by Alexander, Patriarch of Alexandria, and attended the Council of Nicaea as the patriarch's personal secretary.
Later, in A.D. 328, when he had barely reached the age of 33, Athanasius succeeded Alexander to the patriarchal throne of Alexandria.
He spent almost his entire life struggling against Arianism, which had spread throughout nearly all the churches of his time, particularly in Byzantium, all of Asia Minor, Syria, and Egypt.
He was exiled repeatedly by emperors who favored Arianism, beginning with Constantine the Great, who banished him in A.D. 336.
Athanasius returned after Constantine's death.
In A.D. 339, because of the hostility of his powerful Arian opponents, he was forced to flee to Rome.
While in the West, he established close relations with the Church of Rome, which supported him in his struggle against the Arians. Meanwhile, the Eastern Church had fallen almost entirely under the control of the Semi-Arians, who continually persecuted this champion of orthodox Christianity.
In A.D. 346, Athanasius was restored to his patriarchal office, which had been usurped by others.
In A.D. 356, he was once again driven from his episcopal see. This time, however, he went into hiding in the vicinity of Alexandria and returned only after the death of the emperor who had persecuted him.
Nevertheless, that emperor's successor, Julian the Apostate, exiled him again in A.D. 362.
Following Julian's death the next year, Athanasius returned.
In A.D. 365, after his fifth exile, which was brief, he returned once more to his patriarchal see.
He devoted the remaining seven or eight years of his life to reorganizing the Christian Church and strengthening those within it who remained faithful to the Nicene Creed.
His extraordinary efforts bore fruit seven or eight years after his death, when, at the Ecumenical Council of Constantinople in A.D. 381, the position championed by Athanasius—that is, the Nicene Creed—ultimately prevailed.
Arianism, after disturbing the peace of the Eastern Church for more than half a century, gradually passed into history.
Athanasius was a man of unshakable determination. He did not yield even in the slightest to the hardships and persecutions brought upon him by the Semi-Arians.
There was a time when, among the clergy of the entire Christian Church, only Athanasius and a handful of his companions remained faithful to the Nicene Creed.
He wrote continuously in defense of the Nicene Creed and in refutation of Arianism, demonstrating the dangers toward which both well-intentioned and ill-intentioned Semi-Arian bishops were leading the Church.
Especially during the years A.D. 360–373, he devoted himself with extraordinary courage and determination to enlightening, persuading, and winning over bishops who were inclined toward Arianism.
At the same time, he defended the divinity of the Holy Spirit against Macedonius, Patriarch of Constantinople.
He also defended the complete humanity of Christ against his friend Apollinaris, who taught that Christ had assumed a human “body” and “soul,” but not a human mind, whose place had been taken by the “Word of God,” that is, the Logos.
Athanasius also gave great encouragement to monasticism and wrote the Life of St. Anthony.
He was instrumental in introducing monastic ideals to the West, where they would eventually attain their fullest expression in the magnificent and diverse monastic orders of the Roman Church.
His resolute and powerful character was accompanied by inexhaustible energy for work and action.
Nearly all his literary works are theological, apologetic, or polemical in character.
Beginning in the Golden Age of Armenian literature, a substantial portion of his writings was translated into Armenian, comprising more than forty individual works.
His writings form part of the most valuable intellectual and spiritual heritage of the Christian Church.
Athanasius died peacefully in A.D. 373.
In the Armenian Church, we commemorate St. Athanasius twice each year: on the fourth Saturday following the Feast of the Transfiguration (Vardavar) and again toward the end of October, together with the Twelve Doctors of the Church.
St. Cyril of Jerusalem
Although Cyril is one of the distinguished Fathers of the Church, we know relatively little about his life.
He is believed to have been born in A.D. 315. In A.D. 349, he became Bishop of Jerusalem.
In A.D. 357, he was exiled by the Arians. After spending two years in exile, he returned. Before A.D. 378, he was exiled on two additional occasions, after which he was permanently restored to his episcopal see.
In A.D. 380, Gregory of Nyssa was sent to Jerusalem by a decision of a council convened in Antioch to examine the orthodoxy of Cyril's teachings.
Although Gregory of Nyssa found that the Christians of Jerusalem were divided and that immorality was widespread throughout the city, he nevertheless concluded that Cyril's faith was orthodox.
Cyril participated in the Ecumenical Council of Constantinople in A.D. 381 and died peacefully in A.D. 386.
Cyril's principal work, through which he earned an important place among the theological Fathers of the Church, is his Catechetical Lectures, a collection of eighteen discourses written before he became patriarch, around A.D. 347.
These lectures were intended for adults preparing for baptism, who customarily received the seal of Holy Baptism during the Easter Vigil.
In this work, Cyril teaches everything that a Christian needs to know about the faith. The text was translated into Armenian as early as the fifth century.
The Greek version of this work also contains five additional lectures written specifically for those who had already been baptized. These lectures are absent from the Armenian translation.
Also well known is Cyril's letter to Emperor Constantine concerning the miraculous appearance of the Holy Cross. This letter is still read in the Armenian Church on the Feast of the Apparition of the Holy Cross.
Cyril of Jerusalem also composed various homilies, several of which have been translated into Armenian. These include his discourses on the Presentation of the Lord, the Ascension, the Holy Spirit, the Dedication of the Church, and the Holy Cross.
In addition, an excerpt from his commentary on the prophecies of Isaiah and one of his prayers have been translated into Armenian.
The Armenian Church celebrates the feast of St. Cyril twice each year: first, on the second Saturday of Great Lent, and again on the last Saturday of October, together with the Twelve Universal Doctors of the Church.
St. Ephrem the Syrian
Ephrem was a great ecclesiastical writer and a man of saintly life, highly venerated by both the Eastern and Western Churches.
Although he never sought any ecclesiastical rank beyond that of deacon, the Armenian Church places him among the great Doctors of the Church by assigning him two annual commemorations.
The first is on the first Saturday of January, the day dedicated to the great patriarchs and Fathers of the Church, when he is commemorated together with the Cappadocian Fathers. The second is on the last Saturday of October, together with the Twelve Doctors of the Church.
Ephrem was born in Nisibis (Mtsbin) in A.D. 306.
He was a disciple of St. James of Nisibis and is believed to have accompanied him to the Ecumenical Council of Nicaea.
According to one tradition, he was ordained a deacon by St. Basil the Great during a visit that Basil made to him.
In A.D. 363, when Nisibis passed from the control of the Byzantine Empire into Persian rule, Ephrem moved to Edessa.
It was there that he produced the greater part of his extensive literary works, and it was also there that he died in A.D. 373.
Ephrem became renowned not only for the austerity of his life but also, equally and perhaps even more so, for his profound knowledge of nearly every field of religious learning.
He was a poet, and much of his literary work was composed in verse.
In terms of his literary legacy, he closely resembles our own St. Nerses Shnorhali (Nerses the Graceful), Catholicos of the Armenian Church.
Like Shnorhali, Ephrem the Syrian wrote in nearly every literary genre, including biblical commentary, theology, polemical writings, hymns of praise, sermons, and many others.
He distinguished himself particularly in the composition of sacred hymns.
He wrote against Marcion, Bardaisan, Mani, the Anomoeans, and numerous other heretics and religious sects.
One of his favorite literary themes was the Last Judgment, which he described in vivid and awe-inspiring language, much as St. Nerses Shnorhali did in his prayer book, Jesus, Son (Hisus Vordi).
His hymns, especially those dedicated to the Holy Virgin and the saints, are works of praise. Many are composed as acrostics, following either the successive letters of the alphabet or the letters of his own name.
His writings, comprising approximately one hundred distinct works, have been translated almost entirely into Armenian.
Some of these works have survived only in Armenian manuscripts because their Greek translations have been lost.
In 1920, the Latin Church proclaimed Ephrem one of its great Doctors of the Church and transferred his feast from February 1 to February 18.
The saint has been honored with such titles as “Sun of the Syrians,” “Pillar of the Church,” and “Harp of the Holy Spirit.”
Our Armenian Synaxaria (Lives of the Saints) conclude his biography with a magnificent tribute. His life is commemorated there on January 28, which is also the date of his feast in the Greek and Syriac Churches.
We reproduce below that passage from the Armenian Synaxarion in translation:
Ephrem was a God-fearing man, patient, gentle, peaceful, humble, free from anger, sincere, ascetic, repentant, and silent. He was a man whose very presence and encounter could lead another person to repentance and conversion. Whether engaged in work or prayer, his mind was never distracted. He prayed without ceasing, labored continually, devoted himself to ascetic struggles, and gave his body no rest. He observed fasting without measure or limit and was an untiring teacher. He established rules and regulations governing the way of life of abbots and monks within the monasteries. He also left behind numerous written and unwritten memorials of his life and work upon the earth. Having been granted foreknowledge of the approaching end of his life, he summoned his fellow clergy, greeted them, and peacefully departed to be with Christ.
More than one thousand sermons and hymns of praise are attributed to him.
Concerning his physical appearance, the Armenian Synaxaria describe him in these words:
“He was dark-complexioned, short in stature and beardless, gray-haired, smiling in countenance, and filled with the grace of God.”
St. Basil the Great, Archbishop of Caesarea
Basil the Great, his brother Gregory of Nyssa, and their friend Gregory of Nazianzus are collectively known as the “Cappadocian Fathers.” Through their holiness, their extensive literary and theological contributions, and their steadfast defense of orthodoxy, they, together with Athanasius and Cyril of Alexandria, constitute the glory of the Eastern Churches.
They are equally recognized as great Doctors of the Church in both the Eastern and Western Christian traditions.
Basil was born in A.D. 330 in Caesarea, into a distinguished Christian family that had been renowned for generations.
He received his early education first in Caesarea and then in Constantinople.
He subsequently continued his advanced studies in Athens, together with the companions mentioned above. Among his fellow students was Julian, a member of the imperial family who would later become known as Emperor Julian the Apostate.
It is also worth mentioning that one of Basil's teachers was the great Armenian rhetorician Paruyr Haykazn (Prohaeresius), in whose honor the city of Rome erected a commemorative statue.
After receiving the highest education available in the Christian and Greco-Roman cultures of his time, Basil returned to his homeland and devoted himself to the monastic life.
For a period, he visited the monastic communities of Syria and Egypt, as well as the holy sites of the Holy Land.
In A.D. 358, he finally settled near Neocaesarea, in the region of Niksar, where he embraced the life of a hermit.
He was ordained a deacon by Meletius, Patriarch of Antioch.
Together with Gregory of Nazianzus, Basil undertook missionary preaching throughout the provinces of Pontus and Cappadocia.
In A.D. 364, responding to the invitation of Eusebius, Bishop of Caesarea, Basil left his place of ascetic retreat to assist his metropolitan in the struggle against the Arians.
When Eusebius of Caesarea died in A.D. 370, Basil succeeded him as Archbishop of Caesarea and began a period of extensive and fruitful activity.
Basil was an eloquent preacher, a knowledgeable spiritual leader, a firm and demanding reformer, and a clergyman of exceptionally austere habits.
Like St. Athanasius, he engaged in numerous struggles, not only against heretics and Arian or apostate emperors, but also, at times, with the ecclesiastical sees of Rome, Alexandria, and Armenia.
He possessed extraordinary organizational abilities. Through this remarkable gift, he became, to a considerable extent, the founder and organizer of Eastern monastic life, where the rules and regulations established by Basil continue, at least in principle, to be observed.
In addition to monasteries, he founded numerous charitable institutions for the poor and the sick, as well as schools and orphanages for children.
Among the most celebrated works of his extensive literary legacy is the Divine Liturgy of St. Basil, many elements of which are incorporated into our Armenian Divine Liturgy.
Another famous work is the Hexaemeron (The Six Days of Creation), consisting of nine homilies concerning the six days of creation.
Like nearly all his writings, these two works were translated into Armenian beginning in the Golden Age of Armenian literature. Altogether, approximately sixty of his works have been preserved in Armenian translation.
His great prayers are also well known and continue to be recited during the major feasts of the Church.
The Armenian Church celebrates the feast of St. Basil of Caesarea twice each year: on the Saturday nearest January 1 and again on the Feast of the Twelve Doctors of the Church.
St. Gregory of Nyssa
Gregory of Nyssa was born in A.D. 335. He was the younger brother of Basil the Great and received his education alongside his brother.
Gregory initially married. Later, by mutual agreement, his wife entered a convent, while he himself withdrew to one of the monasteries founded by his brother.
In A.D. 371, he was ordained Bishop of Nyssa by his brother Basil.
Some time afterward, he was deposed from his episcopal office by the Arians and sent into exile, where he remained until the death of the Arian Emperor Valens in A.D. 378.
Following the emperor's death, Gregory returned to his bishopric.
In A.D. 379, he was elected Metropolitan of Sebaste, but he declined to leave his beloved small diocese.
In A.D. 381, he participated in the Ecumenical Council of Constantinople, where he became a powerful defender of the Nicene Creed.
The Creed, which had been a source of contention between Arians and orthodox Christians for more than half a century, was finally reaffirmed and firmly established throughout the Church.
St. Gregory of Nyssa died in A.D. 395.
Gregory was a prolific ecclesiastical writer. His works include numerous theological treatises, biblical commentaries, polemical writings, and discourses concerning religious and ascetic life.
He also composed a eulogy dedicated to his sister Macrina, who, like her two brothers, had chosen a life of consecrated celibacy.
The family of Basil the Great provides a remarkable example of complete devotion to God.
A comparable example in our Armenian tradition is the family of St. Gregory of Narek, in which three brothers, their father, and their maternal uncle devoted themselves entirely to the spiritual life.
Basil's grandmother was also named Macrina. She was the matriarch of a deeply virtuous Christian family.
Undoubtedly, she played a significant role in the spiritual education of her grandchildren and in inspiring their dedication to religious life.
This influence was especially remarkable considering that they had before them the prospect of brilliant and promising careers in teaching, rhetoric, philosophy, and law.
Their sister Macrina established a convent on the family's estate, not only to provide a setting for a life of holiness but also to promote the education and upbringing of young girls.
Both women named Macrina—grandmother and granddaughter—have been included in the liturgical calendars of the Eastern and Western Churches, where their feast is celebrated on July 19.
In our Armenian Synaxaria (Lives of the Saints), they are commemorated on July 5.
More than fifty-five works of Gregory of Nyssa have been translated into Armenian.
The Armenian Church celebrates the feast of St. Gregory of Nyssa twice each year: on the Saturday nearest January 1 and again on the last Saturday of October, together with the Twelve Doctors of the Church.
St. Gregory of Nazianzus, the Theologian
Gregory of Nazianzus was born in A.D. 329. He was the son of the Bishop of Nazianzus and a fellow student of the two brothers mentioned above, Basil of Caesarea and Gregory of Nyssa.
Like them, he devoted himself to the ascetic life while still young, a way of life particularly suited to his reserved, contemplative, and prayerful disposition.
However, his father, acting against his son's wishes, summoned him to the episcopal residence, ordained him as a celibate priest in A.D. 362, and appointed him as his assistant.
Ten years later, Gregory was consecrated Bishop of the small town of Sasima.
Nevertheless, he never found the opportunity to take up residence there, because the responsibilities of assisting his aging father had fallen upon his shoulders.
Following his father's death in A.D. 374, Gregory once again withdrew to the ascetic life, this time in Cilicia.
In A.D. 379, he was invited to Constantinople, where his eloquent and inspiring sermons won the affection and admiration of the people.
Through his preaching, he contributed greatly to the triumph of the Nicene spirit and the Nicene Creed.
In A.D. 381, Gregory was elected Patriarch of Constantinople.
Following the death of Meletius, Patriarch of Antioch, Gregory presided over the Ecumenical Council of Constantinople.
However, he found the burdens of ecclesiastical administration tiresome and incompatible with his contemplative temperament.
Consequently, after approximately one year, he resigned from his position and returned to his family's estate in his native Nazianzus.
There, he devoted himself to a life of contemplation, prayer, and literary activity.
He died at his family estate in A.D. 389.
Gregory left behind an extensive and distinguished literary legacy, through which he earned the title “The Theologian.”
He was also a deeply spiritual preacher and a gifted poet, leaving the Church a rich inheritance of sermons and religious poetry.
Like the writings of his two companions, Basil of Caesarea and Gregory of Nyssa, his works were translated into Armenian. More than forty individual writings have been preserved in Armenian translation.
The Armenian Church commemorates St. Gregory of Nazianzus twice each year: first, on the Saturday of the fourth week following the Feast of the Transfiguration (Vardavar), together with St. Athanasius and St. Cyril; and second, on the Saturday toward the end of October, during the Feast of the Twelve Doctors of the Church.
St. Epiphanius of Cyprus
Epiphanius was born in Palestine in A.D. 315, probably into a Jewish family.
He spent many years in the Holy Land and was one of the most enthusiastic supporters of the monastic movement.
He himself founded a monastery in Eleutheropolis, probably in the region of his birthplace.
His reputation as an able organizer and conscientious clergyman became so widespread that, in A.D. 367, when a council of bishops assembled in Cyprus to elect a new bishop, they unanimously chose Epiphanius.
Throughout his life, he remained a fervent defender of the Nicene faith and, consequently, a fierce opponent of the Arians, as well as of all forms of heresy and schism.
For this reason, the masterpiece of his literary work is entitled Refutation of All Heresies, commonly known as the Panarion.
In this work, he identifies and refutes, one by one, all the heresies known to have arisen within the Church up to his time.
During the final years of his life, Epiphanius played an active role in the controversies concerning Apollinarianism and the Meletian schism, which had arisen within the orthodox Christian community.
The first, Apollinarianism, was a heretical teaching concerning the nature of Christ, advanced by Apollinaris (A.D. 310–390), who himself had opposed Arianism.
Apollinaris taught that a human being consists of a body, soul, and mind. According to his teaching, when Christ became incarnate, He assumed the first two elements of human nature—the body and soul—but in place of the human mind dwelt the Divine Word, or Logos.
Thus, although Christ was fully God, according to this teaching He could not be considered fully human.
As for the Meletians, we shall discuss them when we come to the life of Patriarch Meletius.
Epiphanius opposed these groups because he regarded them as not fully adhering to the Nicene faith.
In A.D. 391, while in Rome, Epiphanius met Jerome and joined forces with him in rejecting certain teachings attributed to the great theologian Origen.
These teachings included:
1. The preexistence of souls: That souls existed before their earthly lives, in a manner resembling the preexistent “Ideas” of Platonic philosophy.
2. The nature of the resurrected body: That the bodies with which we shall rise at the Resurrection will be entirely different from the mortal bodies we possess during our earthly lives.
3. The interpretation of Holy Scripture: That the Scriptures should be understood and interpreted exclusively in an allegorical sense.
From Rome, Epiphanius traveled to Jerusalem and subsequently went to Constantinople to continue his struggle against heretical teachings.
In A.D. 403, while returning from Constantinople to his episcopal see in Salamis, Cyprus, he died aboard the ship during the voyage.
In addition to his celebrated Refutation of All Heresies, Epiphanius wrote numerous biblical commentaries and homilies, most of which were translated into Armenian.
Approximately eighty-five works in Armenian are attributed to him or preserved under his name. However, a significant portion of these writings appears not to be genuinely his.
Epiphanius was uncompromising by nature. He defended the Nicene faith with such intensity that his zeal sometimes approached fanaticism, and he showed little tolerance toward those whom he regarded as heretics.
The Armenian Church commemorates St. Epiphanius on May 12, on the third Monday following the Feast of Pentecost, and again on the last Saturday of October, together with the Twelve Doctors of the Church.
St. John Chrysostom
John Chrysostom was one of the most distinguished and gifted Doctors of the Church.
He was born in A.D. 347, the only child of a military commander who served in the Roman army and died at a young age.
Although his widowed mother raised him in the Christian faith, John was not baptized until adulthood.
He received his education in Antioch.
There, he studied law and rhetoric under the great orator Libanius, while receiving his theological education from Diodore of Tarsus, one of the foremost representatives of the theological school of Antioch at that time.
Like nearly all the great ecclesiastical figures of his age, John dedicated himself to the ascetic life while still young.
At first, he practiced asceticism within his own home, since he was responsible for caring for his widowed and aging mother.
After his mother's death, he withdrew into the wilderness, where he lived from A.D. 373 to 381.
His ascetic practices were so severe that they eventually damaged his health.
In A.D. 381, he was ordained a deacon and began serving the Church in Antioch.
In A.D. 386, he was ordained a priest.
Through his magnificent and eloquent preaching, he earned the popular title “Chrysostom,” meaning “Golden-Mouthed,” a designation that remained attached to his name for the rest of his life.
He devoted his extraordinary rhetorical gifts to reforming Antioch, a disorderly city whose inhabitants, though Christians in name, often failed to live according to the teachings of their faith.
At the same time, he dedicated himself to the interpretation of Holy Scripture.
He explained the Scriptures with such elegance, clarity, and depth that he came to be recognized as one of the greatest biblical interpreters of the ancient Church.
In A.D. 398, despite his own wishes, John was elected Patriarch of Constantinople.
With the same energy and determination that had characterized his ministry in Antioch, he undertook the moral and spiritual reform of the imperial capital.
Constantinople had lost much of its Christian character because of internal disputes and widespread immoral behavior.
Corruption and religious indifference had taken root not only among the imperial court and clergy but also among the ordinary citizens.
Alongside his integrity, holiness, and sincere devotion to God, Chrysostom possessed an unrestricted boldness in condemning every form of immorality, regardless of the social or political standing of those responsible.
Because he showed no hesitation in rebuking those who lived immorally, he incurred the anger of Empress Eudoxia.
Theophilus, Patriarch of Alexandria, who aspired to become Patriarch of Constantinople himself, also turned against Chrysostom and joined forces with the empress.
In A.D. 403, Chrysostom was condemned by a local ecclesiastical council on the basis of twenty-nine accusations.
According to this account, only one of these accusations had any foundation: his inappropriate remarks concerning the empress.
The council was presided over by Theophilus, the Patriarch of Alexandria, who was envious of Chrysostom.
An order of exile was issued against him.
However, on the night of his departure, Constantinople was struck by such a terrible earthquake and fire that the empress summoned him back and restored him to his patriarchal throne.
Yet this experience of exile did not serve as a warning to Chrysostom.
He continued to preach with the same severity against the extravagance and excesses of the imperial court.
Neither the affection of the people nor the support of the Western Church could prevent the weak-willed Emperor Arcadius and his capricious wife, Eudoxia, from issuing a second decree of exile against the blessed patriarch.
At first, Chrysostom was exiled to the region of Antioch.
However, when the authorities realized that, despite his weakened health, the mild climate of the region might allow him to survive for a considerable time, they ordered him to be transferred first to Cucusus and then to Pontus.
The great patriarch was, in a very real sense, martyred by the hardships imposed upon him.
Though gravely ill, he was forced to travel on foot over an immense distance under the most unfavorable climatic and geographical conditions.
He died in the city of Comana in A.D. 407.
His final words were:
“Glory be to God for all things.”
In A.D. 438, his body was brought back to Constantinople with great solemnity and honor.
His remains were reverently laid to rest in the Church of the Holy Apostles.
Ironically, this was the same church in which his bitter enemy, Empress Eudoxia, had been buried in A.D. 404.
John Chrysostom's greatness lay in his spiritual character, courage, preaching, and, above all, his immense literary legacy.
For centuries, his writings have provided rich spiritual nourishment to Christian Churches throughout the world, and they continue to retain their value to this day.
Among his most celebrated works is the Divine Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom, many elements of which are also found in our Armenian Divine Liturgy.
His treatise On the Priesthood, together with his numerous sermons and biblical commentaries, forms a particularly important part of his literary heritage.
Most of these writings were translated into Armenian as early as the fifth century, in the elegant classical Armenian language of the Golden Age, while others were translated during subsequent centuries.
Chrysostom also composed great prayers for various feast days and liturgical occasions, several of which remain in use in our Armenian Church to this day.
The Armenian Church celebrates the feast of St. John Chrysostom twice each year: first, on the seventh Thursday following the Feast of the Holy Cross, and again on the last Saturday of October, together with the Twelve Doctors of the Church.
St. Cyril, Patriarch of Alexandria
Cyril is the last of the great patriarchs of the universal Christian Church to have been included among the saints commemorated in our liturgical calendar.
He was one of the most energetic and distinguished ecclesiastical leaders in the history of the Church.
Cyril was born in Alexandria in A.D. 380.
It is believed that, as the nephew of Patriarch Theophilus, he accompanied his uncle while still a young man to the council of A.D. 403, at which John Chrysostom was deposed from his patriarchal throne.
In A.D. 412, Cyril succeeded his uncle as Patriarch of Alexandria.
One of his first undertakings was an intense campaign against the Novatian schismatics, whose churches he closed.
He also took action against the Jews of Alexandria, whom he accused of provoking disturbances against the Christians, and expelled a large number of them from the city.
In addition, he entered into conflict with Orestes, the governor of Alexandria, who supported the Jewish population and resented Cyril's growing influence and authority, which had come to exceed his own.
Cyril's name is particularly associated with the controversy surrounding the title “Theotokos,” meaning “Mother of God” or “God-bearer,” as applied to the Blessed Virgin Mary.
Nestorius, Patriarch of Constantinople, opposed this designation and instead advocated the title Christotokos, meaning “Mother of Christ,” because he believed that the Blessed Virgin had given birth only to Christ in His humanity.
Several factors combined to bring Cyril into direct confrontation with Nestorius: the longstanding rivalry between the patriarchal sees of Alexandria and Constantinople, the theological differences between the Alexandrian and Antiochene schools (Nestorius had received his theological education in Antioch), and finally Cyril's own combative temperament.
In A.D. 429, Cyril defended the title Theotokos in his Paschal Letter.
He subsequently convened a council in Alexandria, where Nestorius was condemned.
Cyril also urged Pope Celestine of Rome to take similar action, which he did in A.D. 430.
Cyril then sent Nestorius the decisions of both councils, accompanied by a letter and twelve anathemas, demanding that Nestorius accept the decisions and sign the proposed condemnations.
Cyril also informed John, Patriarch of Antioch, of these developments. John was a personal friend of Nestorius.
Nestorius naturally rejected Cyril's demands and publicly preached against him, accusing Cyril of slander.
At the same time, however, Nestorius agreed to use the term Theotokos, which had already gained widespread acceptance among the faithful.
Nestorius, in turn, sent copies of these sermons to Patriarch John of Antioch, who preferred to accept Nestorius's explanations rather than Cyril's twelve anathemas.
Meanwhile, in an effort to resolve the controversy through a more formal ecclesiastical process, Emperor Theodosius II proposed assembling all the bishops at an Ecumenical Council in Ephesus.
The Pope of Rome also agreed to this proposal, hoping that such a gathering would restore peace and unity within the Church.
The council convened in A.D. 431.
When Nestorius arrived in Ephesus together with the emperor's representatives, he found that all the churches of the city had been closed to him, since the Bishop of Ephesus was a supporter of Cyril.
Cyril had arrived accompanied by fifty bishops.
The bishops of Palestine, all of Asia Minor, and Greece were also largely supportive of Cyril.
However, John, Patriarch of Antioch, and the bishops accompanying him were delayed.
Believing that the Antiochene delegation would not attend, Cyril declared the council officially opened on June 22, despite the request of sixty-eight bishops that the proceedings be postponed until definite news could be received from the Antiochenes.
The representatives of the Pope had not yet arrived either.
Nevertheless, Cyril insisted that the council proceed.
As the highest-ranking ecclesiastical authority present, he presided over the assembly.
Nestorius was summoned to appear before the council to defend himself against the accusations brought against him.
However, he refused to receive the four bishops who came to deliver the summons.
Consequently, the council condemned him as a heretic and declared him deposed from his patriarchal office.
The council also formally approved Cyril's letter to Nestorius, in which Cyril had set forth his theological understanding and confession of faith.
When the bishops from Antioch arrived one week later, they convened a separate council of forty-three bishops.
This assembly, in turn, condemned Cyril and declared him deposed from his patriarchal office.
Eventually, the emperor confirmed the decisions of the council presided over by Cyril.
The papal delegation, which arrived approximately one month late, likewise endorsed those decisions.
Despite his passionate and sometimes combative temperament, Cyril remains one of the most authoritative theologians in the history of the Christian Church.
He was the most brilliant representative of the Alexandrian theological school.
While strongly emphasizing the divinity of Jesus Christ, he neither rejected nor diminished Christ's humanity.
Building upon the teachings of Athanasius and the Cappadocian Fathers, Cyril brought together and systematically developed the doctrines concerning the Holy Trinity, the Incarnation of Christ, and the nature of Christ.
Cyril's celebrated theological formula,
“One Nature of God the Word Incarnate”
(Mia Physis tou Theou Logou Sesarkomene)
has always served as the cornerstone of the Armenian Church's Christological teaching.
In opposition to the teaching of Nestorius, which was understood as dividing Christ into two distinct natures, this formula emphasizes the UNITY of Christ's divine and human natures.
In the Christian East, Cyril became known by the distinguished title “Seal of the Fathers of the Church.”
His theological formulation, emphasizing the unity of the incarnate Christ, was accepted and embraced by the Third Ecumenical Council, held at Ephesus in A.D. 431.
This council remains part of the common doctrinal heritage of both the non-Chalcedonian and Chalcedonian Churches, which, despite their subsequent divisions, continue to recognize its authority.
Cyril left behind an extensive collection of homilies, biblical commentaries, and other theological writings.
A large portion of these works was translated into Armenian during the eighth century by Stephen of Syunik.
St. Cyril of Alexandria died in A.D. 444.
The Armenian Church commemorates this great patriarch twice each year: first, on the fourth Saturday following the Feast of the Transfiguration (Vardavar), and again toward the end of October, together with the Twelve Doctors of the Church.
